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Female Genital Sol in Iraqi Kurdistan: description and associated dating iraqi girl. Rates of violence against women, female suicide and femicide in Iraqi Kurdistan increased sharply between 2014 and 2015. It must be hard to stay connected to people who do not share the same ideals as oneself. A survey where 500 men were met in found that, when asked the appropriate punishment for a woman who has committed adultery, 37% of respondents said she should be killed, while 21% said her nose or ears should be cut off. A 2013 report finds FGM prevalence rate of 59% based on clinical examination of about 2000 Servile Kurdish women; FGM found were Type I, and 60% of the mutilation were performed to girls in 4—7 year age group. How will you get to the next one?.
The status of women in Iraq at the beginning of the 21st century is affected by many factors: wars most recently the , sectarian religious conflict, debates concerning and , cultural traditions, and modern. Hundreds of thousands of Iraqi women are widowed as a result of a series of wars and internal conflicts. Women's rights organizations struggle against harassment and intimidation, while they work to promote improvements to women's status in the law, in education, the workplace, and many other spheres of Iraqi life, and to curtail abusive traditional practices such as and. During the seventh century the as a part of their conquest were , who were defeated. As Doreen Ingrams, the author of The Awakened: Women in Iraq, noticed p. However, even then many girls were being captured as slaves. With the departure of the Mongols a succession of rivalries followed until 1553, when the Ottoman Sultan captured Baghdad and its provinces, which became parts of the empire. However, all these ended with the fall of the Turks. In 1932, Iraq was declared independent and in 1958 was declared a Republic as a member of the League of Nations. Saddam Hussein succeeded Al Bakr as President in 1979. Iraqi schoolgirls Iraq established an education system in 1921 and by the 1970s education became public and free at all levels. This changed in the 1990s when the first ensued and economic sanctions caused educational institutions to rapidly deteriorate. The gender gap with regard to Iraq's literacy rate is narrowing. Overall, 26% of Iraqi women are illiterate, and 11% of Iraqi men. For youth aged 15—24 years, the literacy rate is 80% for young women, and 85% for young men. Girls are less likely than boys to continue their education beyond the primary level, and their enrollment numbers drop sharply after that. Education levels attained by Iraqi women and men in 2007 were: Level of education Female % Male % Total % Primary 28. Making up 65% of the Iraqi population, women are a vital part of the culture. They make up 70% of the agricultural workforce. With an estimated population of 22,675,617, Iraq is a male dominated society. Although there are many classes and castes within the culture, the official language of Iraq is Arabic and Kurdish. On International Women's Day, 8 March 2011, a coalition of 17 Iraqi women's rights groups formed the. The OWFI is another committed to the defense of women's rights in. It has been very active in Iraq for several years, with thousands of members, and it is the Iraqi women's rights organization with the largest international profile. It was founded in June 2003 by , Nasik Ahmad and Nadia Mahmood. It defends full social equality between women and men and , and fights against and the. OWFI originated with the Organisation indépendante des femmes, active in from 1992 to 2003 despite government and religious oppression, and the Coalition de défense des droits des femmes irakiennes, founded in 1998 by Iraqi women in exile. OWFI concentrates its activities on the fight against , against abduction and murder of women and against. Thousands of members strong, it has at its disposal a network of support from outside Iraq, notably from the. It also has members in Great Britain, Canada, Sweden, Switzerland, the Netherlands, Norway, Finland, and Denmark. Its activists and its directors have many times been the object of death threats from Islamic organizations. The circumstances resulting from the and then the Kurdish uprising in in 1991, gave the Kurdish region of Iraq an essentially autonomous situation for a period, despite the conflicts between zones controlled by the largest nationalist parties. This allowed the development of some claims to women's rights, which in turn influenced some of the women who would become active in founding OWFI. Some militant women's rights advocates in Iraq, who seek to establish a dialogue with Islamist women, maintain a distance from the radical feminism and secularism of OWFI. Women's rights in Iraqi Kurdistan Some reported issues related to women in Kurdish society include , , domestic violence, female infanticide and polygamy. Majority of reports have come from Iraq where the Kurdish and Iraqi population have been poorly educated and illiteracy is still a big problem among citizens. However, some reported issues have not been taken seriously, because all reported issues are common among the populations with whom they live. Some Kurds in small populated areas, especially uneducated Kurds are organized in patrilineal clans, there is patriarchal control of marriage and property, women are generally treated in many ways like property. Rural Kurdish women are often not allowed to make their own decisions regarding sexuality or husbands, arranged marriages and in some places child marriages are common. Some Kurdish men, especially religious Kurds also practice polygamy. Kurds generally see having large families as the ideal. New laws against honor killing and polygamy were introduced in Iraqi Kurdistan, however it was noted by Amnesty International that the prosecution of honor killings remains low, and the implementation of the anti-polygamy resolution in the PUK-controlled areas has not been consistent. In 2005, Marjorie P. Lasky also said that U. The Iraqi Constitution of 2005 states that Islam is the main source of legislation and laws must not contradict Islamic provisions. The is discriminatory towards women, particularly with regard to , child custody, and inheritance. In March 2008 an Iraqi 17-year-old girl was violently murdered by her father and two older brothers for becoming friendly with a British soldier. When her mother ran away out of defiance of such a cruel act, she was found dead on her street, shot in the head twice. The father was released after two hours of questioning from the Iraqi police force and was neither charged nor tried with the murder of his own daughter, although he had confessed to killing her. Sharia law Seldom worn at home by young urban women, the wearing of chador has expanded rapidly in under pressure from since 2003. This resolution permitted very different interpretations from the law of 1958 on the part of religious communities. It opened an additional breach in the civil law and risked exacerbating inter-religious tensions in Iraq. In a statement, OWFI affirmed : Iraq is a secular society. Women and men in Iraq never imagined that they would defeat Ba'athist Fascism only to have it replaced with an Islamic dictatorship. Despite its reputation for being relatively secular, was never totally absent from Iraq before 2003. A coalition of 85 women's organizations, through means of international communication, launched a protest movement. One month later, on January 29, 2004, the resolution was withdrawn. Beginning in September 2004, OWFI launched a new campaign against the forced wearing of the veil being enforced by Islamic militias, notably in the universities. In 2005, there was once again debate over the new , which considered as one of the sources of Iraqi law. The outline of the constitution proposes, in article 14, the repeal of existing law and to refer merely to family law, in concordance with Islamic and other religious codes in Iraq. In other words, it makes women vulnerable to all forms of inequality and social discrimination. In most cases, groups such as OWFI charge, it provides a legal cover for prostitution. There is a more recent 2016 survey here:. The highest prevalence rates of FGM are in Kirkuk 20% , Sulaymaniyah 54% and Erbil 58%. Female genital mutilation was an accepted part of Sorani speaking Kurdish and Iraqi Arab culture in Iraq, including Erbil and Sulaymaniyah. A 2011 Kurdish law criminalized FGM practice in Iraqi Kurdistan and law was accepted four years later. MICS reported in 2011 that in Iraq, FGM was found mostly among the Kurdish areas in , and , giving the country a national prevalence of eight percent. However, other Kurdish areas like Dohuk and some parts of Ninewa were almost free from FGM. In 2014, a small survey of 827 households conducted in Erbil and Sulaymaniyah assessed a 58. According to the same survey, FGM has declined in recent years. In 2016, the studies showed that there is a trend of general decline of FGM among those who practiced it before. Kurdish human rights organizations have reported several times that FGM is not a part of Kurdish culture and authorities aren't doing enough to stop it completely. According to a 2008 report in the , the Kurdistan region of Iraq is one of the few places in the world where female genital mutilation had been rampant. According to one study carried out in 2008, approximately 60% of all women in Kurdish areas of northern Iraq had been mutilated. It was claimed that at least one Kurdish territory, female genital mutilation had occurred among 95% of women. The has strengthened its laws regarding violence against women in general and female genital mutilation in particular, and is now considered to be an anti-FGM model for other countries to follow. Female genital mutilation was prevalent in and among Iraqis in central Iraq. In 2010, WADI published a study that 72% of all Kurdish women and girl were circumcised that year. Two years later, a similar study was conducted in the province of Kirkuk with findings of 38% FGM prevalence giving evidence to the assumption that FGM was not only practiced by the Kurdish population but also existed in central Iraq. In Erbil Governorate and Suleymaniya Type I FGM was common; while in Garmyan and New Kirkuk, Type II and III FGM were common. There was no law against FGM in Iraq, but in 2007 a draft legislation condemning the practice was submitted to the Regional Parliament, but was not passed. A field report by Iraqi group PANA Center, published in 2012, shows 38% of women in Kirkuk and its surrounding districts areas had undergone female circumcision. Of those circumcised, 65% were Kurds, 26% Arabs and rest Turkmen. A 2013 report finds FGM prevalence rate of 59% based on clinical examination of about 2000 Iraqi Kurdish women; FGM found were Type I, and 60% of the mutilation were performed to girls in 4—7 year age group. Female genital mutilation is prevalent in , with an FGM rate of 72% according to the 2010 WADI report for the entire region and exceeding 80% in Garmyan and New Kirkuk. In Erbil Governorate and Suleymaniya Type I FGM is common; while in Garmyan and New Kirkuk, Type II and III FGM are common. There was no law against FGM in Iraqi Kurdistan, but in 2007 a draft legislation condemning the practice was submitted to the Regional Parliament, but was not passed. A 2011 Kurdish law criminalized FGM practice in Iraqi Kurdistan, however this law is not being enforced. A field report by Iraqi group PANA Center, published in 2012, shows 38% of women in Kirkuk and its surrounding districts areas had undergone female circumcision. Of those circumcised, 65% were Kurds, 26% Arabs and rest Turkmen. A 2013 report finds FGM prevalence rate of 59% based on clinical examination of about 2000 Iraqi Kurdish women; FGM found were Type I, and 60% of the mutilation were performed to girls in 4—7 year age group. Honour crimes In 2008. About 500 honour killings per year are reported in hospitals in Iraqi Kurdistan, although real numbers are likely much higher. It is speculated that alone in Erbil there is one honour killing per day. The UNAMI reported that at least 534 honour killings occurred between January and April 2006 in the Kurdish Governorates. Aso Kamal of the Doaa Network Against Violence claimed that they have estimated that there were more than 12,000 honor killings in Iraqi Kurdistan from 1991 to 2007. He also said that the government figures are much lower, and show a decline in recent years, and Kurdish law has mandated since 2008 that an honor killing be treated like any other murder. Attitudes towards domestic violence are ambivalent even among women. A survey of adolescent girls aged 15—19, covering the years 2002—2009, asked them if they think that a husband is justified in hitting or beating his wife under certain circumstances; 57% responded yes. Under the , can only be punished with a maximum of three years. Information supplied by OWFI on the resurgence of since 2003 was included in the September 2006 report by the UN Assistance Mission for Iraq UNAMI. Shelters OWFI created shelters in , , and for women and couples whose families have threatened them with honour crimes. The location of shelters was kept secret and they were under permanent guard. A crisis phone line number was available in each issue of 'al-Moussawat. Several other organizations from abroad assisted this initiative. Since the end of 2007, the shelters, determined to be too dangerous for the residents, were closed and many of the women were accommodated in host families. Forced prostitution, abductions and killings of women Beginning in August 2003, OWFI organized a protest to attract attention to the rapid growth in rapes and abductions. A letter sent by OWFI to , in charge of the American administration in Iraq, on the question of violence against women, remained unanswered. An inquiry was initiated by OWFI to examine abductions and killings of women. During the first ten days of November 2007, more than 150 unclaimed women's corpses, most of them decapitated, mutilated, or having evidence of extreme torture, were processed through the Bagdad morgue. For OWFI, these deaths are linked to honour crimes, but in this case, in a new form, since the killings are taken beyond the family circle to become the business of paramilitary groups. Beginning in 2006, OWFI initiated an inquiry into the link between widespread abductions of women and prostitution networks. Activists for women's rights in Iraq have mapped and studied prostitution in their country to understand how it functions and how trafficking spreads, showing that the majority of prostitutes are minors and that the trafficking networks extend throughout the. Indeed, shortly before his resignation, MInister of Women's Affairs Nawal al-Samarraie had declared that the traffic in prostitution was limited and that the young women were involved voluntarily, which had denounced. Criminal gangs have prostituted girls from outside of the Iraqi Kurdistan Region in the provinces of Erbil, Dahuk, and Sulaymaniyah. Abuse of women since the invasion Many people feel it is due to the ongoing terror wrought in this land that brings so much to women. Prior to the arrival of forces in Iraq in 1991, Iraqi women were free to wear whatever they liked and go wherever they chose. Arising from their fear of being and , women have to wear not only the veil, but must also to wear chador in order not to attract attention. It has notably obtained authorization to regularly visit the Khadidimya prison, in , and to denounce the detention conditions: rapes during interrogations, poor treatment, and the presence of children in the cells. OWFI has taken part in negotiations with the municipality of Bagdad to open a daycare in proximity to the prison. In 2009, OWFI was alerted to the situation of 11 women condemned to death, detained in this prison, after the execution of one among them. In 2010, OWFI observers met young girls aged 12 years, expelled from for prostitution and imprisoned in Iraq. In February 2014 released a 105-page report 'No One is Safe' alleging there are thousands of Iraqi women in jails being held without charge, that are being routinely tortured, beaten, and raped. In February 2004, OWFI launched a campaign to support fifty female bank employees held on charges of embezzling millions during exchange operations involving banknotes. Embarrassed by the affair, U. OWFI has denounced the Islamist-influenced licensing process for women in professions. Nuha Salim declared : The insurgents and militias do not want us in the professional sphere for various reasons: some because they believe women were born to stay at home — and cook and clean -- and others because they say that it is contrary to Islam that a man and woman should find themselves in the same place if they are not related. Moghadam, author of Modernizing Women: Gender and Social Changes in the Middle East, argues that women were the first whose social life was affected by the economy and in cases of war. As noted by Yasmin Husein, author of Women in Iraq, the traditional role of women in Iraq is confined mainly to domestic responsibilities and nurturing the family. The wide scale destruction of Iraq's infrastructure i. Women, in the process, assumed extra burdens and domestic responsibilities in society, as opposed to their male counterparts. A female Iraqi soldier during live weapons training at the Royal Military Academy. The Iraqi Constitution states that a quarter of the government must be made up of women. However, the women that hold position in the government still have little to no power. Often, the women in government are just relatives of other leaders. Serious women leaders in Iraq are unheard of. However, Iraq has been a leader on women's rights for quite some time. In the 1950s it became the first Arab country to have a female minister and to have a law that gave women the ability to ask for divorces. Women attained the right to vote and run for public office in 1980. In 1986, Iraq created CEDAW, the Convention on Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. Under his rule, women had no form of governmental power. Women had to lobby the American administrator in Iraq, L. Paul Bremer III, to mandate the requirement of a quarter of the Parliament's members being women. There is also a large divide among the women themselves, some more modern women wanting a larger percent of women in the Iraqi government still, and some more traditional women believing that they and others are not qualified enough to hold any sort of position in the Iraqi government. Another existing issue is the increasing amount of illiterate women in the country. In 1987 approximately 75 percent of Iraqi women were literate. In 2000, Iraq had the lowest regional adult literacy levels, with the percentage of literate women at less than 25 percent. This makes it increasingly difficult to put educated women in a position of power. Although there are many issues with the current spread of power among genders in Iraq, they are one of the more westernized Arab countries. However, there is hope for women in Iraq. After Hussein's fall in 2003, women's leaders in Iraq saw it as a key opportunity to gain more power in Parliament. The leaders asked for a quota that would have seen that at least 40 percent of the Parliament to be women. In the 2010 National Elections, a group of twelve women started their own party based on women's issues, such as a jobs program for Iraq's 700,000 widows. The United States' involvement in Iraq was seen as detrimental to women. Since Prime Minister Nouri al-Maliki was elected as Prime Minister of Iraq, not one woman has been appointed to his senior cabinet. Many women across the country, especially young women, are afraid to voice their political voices for fear of harming their reputations. When they do become active politically, they are seen as being influenced by the United States and trying to push a liberal agenda. Constitutionally, women lost a number of key rights after the United States entered Iraq. The Family Statutes law, which guarantees women equal rights when it comes to marriage, divorce, inheritance, and custody, was replaced by one that gave power to religious leaders and allowed them to dictate family matters according to their interpretation of their chosen religious text. Third World Centre for Research and Publishing Ltd. Hollis and Carter, 1964 , p. Retrieved August 21, 2011. Retrieved August 21, 2011. New York: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2008. Iraq: It's People, It's Society, It's Culture. New Haven, CT: Hraf Press, 1958. Retrieved 13 January 2010. Retrieved August 21, 2011. Worker-communist Party of Iran. Retrieved August 21, 2011. Women and the occupation of Iraq, University of California Press, 2009 p. Retrieved 1 April 2016. Retrieved 5 April 2007. Retrieved 5 April 2007. Retrieved 5 April 2007. Retrieved 5 April 2007. In July 2000, they attacked a women's shelter and the offices of an independent women's organisation. What Kind of Liberation? 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Retrieved 25 Apr 2013. The New York Times. Retrieved 16 May 2013. Retrieved 14 May 2013. Retrieved 10 May 2013. Retrieved 15 May 2013. Dans la mêlée, 2006. Critiques par le , ,. Les acteurs et actrices des droits des femmes et de la solidarité internationale se rencontrent et échangent sur leurs pratiques. Actes du colloque 30 et 31 mars, Lille , Paris, L'Harmattan, 2008, p. What Kind of Liberation: Women and the Occupation of Iraq. Los Angeles: University of California Press, 2009. New York: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2008. Guests of the Sheik. Garden City, NY: Anchor Books, 1969. Iraq: It's People, It's Society, It's Culture. New Haven, CT: Hraf Press, 1958. Baltimore: The Lord Baltimore Press, 1946. The Destruction of Cultural Heritage in Iraq. Rochester, NY: The Boydell Press, 2008.
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